Recent high-resolution immunolocalization experiments examining the distribution of GABA and glutamate receptors, voltage-gated potassium and sodium channels and hyperpolarization-activated mixed cation (HCN) channels clearly demonstrate the lack of simple rules concerning their subcellular distribution. For example, the density of HCN1 subunits in pyramidal cells increases 60-fold from mTOR inhibitor soma to distal dendrites but is uniform over the somato-dendritic surface of olfactory bulb external tufted cells and is highest in the axon of cortical and cerebellar

basket cells. Such findings highlight the necessity of determining the precise subcellular location and density of each ion channel in every cell type. Here, I suggest that variations in the subcellular distribution of ion channels are previously unrecognized means of increasing neuronal diversity and, thus, the computational power of the brain.”
“Background. Insufficient evidence exists for a viable choice between long- and short-term

psychotherapies in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. The present trial compares the effectiveness of one long-term therapy and two short-term therapies in the treatment of mood and anxiety disorders.

Method. In the Helsinki Psychotherapy Study, 326 out-patients with mood (84.7%) or anxiety disorder (43.6%) were randomly assigned to three treatment groups (long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy, short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy, and solution-focused therapy) and were followed SBI-0206965 nmr up for 3 years Protirelin from start of treatment. Primary outcome measures were depressive symptoms measured by self-report Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and observer-rated Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD), and anxiety symptoms measured by self-report Symptom Check List Anxiety Scale (SCL-90-Anx) and observer-rated Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA).

Results. A statistically significant reduction of symptoms was noted for BDI (51%), HAMD (36%), SCL-90-Anx (41%) and HAMA (38%) during the 3-year follow-up. Short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy was more effective than

long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy during the first year, showing 15-27% lower scores for the four outcome measures. During the second year of follow-up no significant differences were found between the short-term and long-term therapies, and after 3 years of follow-up long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy was more effective with 14-37% lower scores for the outcome variables. No statistically significant differences were found in the effectiveness of the short-term therapies.

Conclusions. Short-term therapies produce benefits more quickly than long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy but in the long run long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy is superior to short-term therapies. However, more research is needed to determine which patients should be given long-term psychotherapy for the treatment of mood or anxiety disorders.

“
“Aim: To determine independent click here risk factors for recurrence of atrial fibrillation (AF) after a successful direct current (DC) cardioversion in patients with and without diabetes.

Design: We retrospectively analysed the outcome in patients

recently diagnosed with persistent AF.

Methods: Of 364 patients included, 289 had a successful direct current (DC) cardioversion. We compared 42 (14.5) patients known to have diabetes to 247 (85.5) without. Patients were reviewed in outpatient clinic with assessment of heart rhythm clinically and by electrocardiogram. Median follow-up after DC cardioversion was 74 days [interquartile range (IQR) 6978 days].

Results: When reviewed in outpatient clinic, only 63.7 (185 of 289) were still in sinus rhythm (SR). Of the group without diabetes, 66.8 (165 of 247) remained in SR vs. 45.2 (19 of 42) of the group with diabetes (P = 0.005). Binary logistic regression analysis showed duration of AF (P < 0.0001) and the presence of diabetes (P = 0.019) have been independent risk factors for recurrence of AF.

Discussion: Presence of diabetes and the longer duration of AF were CYT387 independent risk factors for the recurrence of AF after a successful DC cardioversion.”
“Progressive loss of renal function is associated

with a dysregulation of circulating T cells that may underlie their impaired T-cell immunity. Here we tested whether end-stage renal disease (ESRD)-related T-cell alterations are compatible with the concept of premature immunological aging. Younger patients (25-45 years old) with ESRD were found to resemble older healthy controls (60-80 years old) as they had a significant loss of naive T cells and a relative increase of memory T cells showing progressive terminal

differentiation. A significant decrease in the content of T-cell receptor excision Thiamet G circles and telomere length in patients with ESRD confirmed these phenotypic data. The loss of naive T cells in patients with ESRD was associated with an excessive age-related decrease of recent thymic emigrants, indicating a premature decline in thymic function. Additionally, increased homeostatic proliferation of naive T cells was found in patients with ESRD, similar to that of older healthy individuals, with an increased susceptibility for activation-induced apoptosis. Therefore, both decreased thymic output and increased susceptibility of naive T cells for apoptosis may play a role in the loss of naive T cells in ESRD patients. Thus, our results are compatible with premature aging of the T-cell system of patients with ESRD comparable with that of healthy individuals 20-30 years older. Kidney International (2011) 80, 208-217; doi:10.1038/ki.2011.

This consists of a short-latency response (SLR) corresponding

to the mono- and oligosynaptic reflex and a medium-latency response (MLR) relayed by group-II spindle afferent fibers and likely made of a segmental burst and a transcortical loop.

Soleus (Sol) SLR and MLR were evoked by toe-up and tibialis anterior (TA) MLR by toe-down platform rotation in 15 standing subjects and recorded by surface electromyogram (EMG). For each stimulus type, up to 20 perturbations were elicited during i) quiet stance (Control) and while ii) performing JM, iii) leaning forward (FW), iv) holding onto a stable frame (Holding). For each subject, stimulus type and condition, rectified EMG traces were averaged. Based on the comparison of the population Combretastatin A4 chemical structure grand averages, selective effects of JM on the responses were identified. Appropriate time windows were set for measuring the area of SLR and of the early and late burst ARN-509 molecular weight of MLR (MLR1 and MLR2).

Significant changes in response size, but not latency, were induced by all conditioning procedures. During toe-up, JM slightly increased Sol SLR; FW increased both Sol background activity and SLR; MLR1 was not affected by JIM, but increased by FW; MLR2 was

strongly diminished by JM and increased by FW. During toe-down, JM did not affect TA MLR1, but strongly diminished MLR2. Under Holding condition, Sol SLR to toe-up was unaffected, but both MLR1 and MLR2 to toe-up and toe-down were diminished, in both Sol and TA.

JM selectively decreases the response component (MLR2) starting about 100 ms from onset of the stretch, in both extensor and flexor muscles. Latency and quality of the JIM effect on MLR2 indicate that JM operates by gating a long-loop, possibly transcortical pathway. This new information suggests that lesions of cortical areas or descending pathways can exert enhancing effects on muscle tone by removing an inhibitory action on the late component

of the stretch reflex. (C) 2008 IBRO. Benzatropine Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Background: For good rehabilitation candidates, the biomechanical advantages of the end weight-bearing through-knee amputation (TKAmp) compared with the above knee amputation (ARA) are well established. However, the TKAmp has been abandoned by vascular surgeons because of poor wound healing rates related to long tissue flaps and challenges to prosthetic fitting related to the femoral condyles. Since 1998, we have performed the modified “”Mazet”" technique TKAmp procedure that creates shorter flaps to close the wound and greatly facilitates prosthesis fitting. The purpose of this study is to review our results with TKAmp in patients with peripheral vascular disease who were not candidates for below-knee amputation.

Methods: The records of all patients who underwent through-knee amputation between 1998 and 2006 were retrospectively reviewed. Mean follow-up was 33 months (range, 38 days to 99 months).

The lack of metastatic tissue samples was a study limitation.

Conclusions: Sarcosine in prostate cancer tissue samples cannot be considered a suitable predictor of tumor aggressiveness or biochemical recurrence.”
“Purpose: We studied vaporization parameters, www.selleckchem.com/products/sis3.html and anatomical and histopathological outcomes of photoselective vaporization of the prostate with the novel GreenLight (TM) XPS (TM) 180 W, 532 nm lithium triborate laser and MoXy (TM) fiber in a survival model of living dogs. We compared these findings with those of the existing GreenLight HPS (TM) 120 W 532 nm lithium triborate laser photoselective vaporization of the prostate in living dogs.

Materials

and Methods: Eight dogs underwent antegrade photoselective vaporization of the prostate with the 180 W laser delivered through a new 750 mu m (vs the existing

600 mu m core diameter), 50% larger, spot sized, side firing fiber. Four dogs were sacrificed 3 hours and 8 weeks postoperatively, respectively. We recorded laser energy and time. Prostates were sectioned, measured and histologically analyzed after hematoxylin and eosin, triphenyltetrazolium chloride or Gomori trichrome staining and compared with a normal control.

Results: Photoselective vaporization of the prostate with the 180 W laser bloodlessly created a 76% larger cavity (mean 11.8 vs 6.7 cm(3), p = 0.014), vaporized tissue at a 77% higher rate (mean 2.3 vs 1.3 cm(3) per minute, p = 0.03) and did

so in 37% less time per volume vaporized (0.5 vs 0.8 minutes per cm(3), p = 0.003). Hematoxylin and eosin, and triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining histologically selleck chemicals revealed a 33% thicker mean coagulation zone vs that of 120 W laser photoselective vaporization of the prostate (2.0 +/- 0.4 vs 1.5 +/- 0.3 mm, p < 0.005). In prostates healed for 8 weeks postoperatively hematoxylin and eosin, and Gomori trichrome staining showed re-epithelialized cavities with negligible submucosal fibrosis compared with a normal prostate.

Conclusions: GreenLight XPS 180 W 532 nm lithium triborate laser photoselective vaporization Glutamate dehydrogenase of the prostate with the MoXy fiber has a significantly higher vaporization rate and speed with a deeper hemostatic coagulation zone but favorable tissue interaction and healing equal to those of HPS 120 W laser photoselective vaporization of the prostate in dogs.”
“Purpose: Electrical stimulation of pudendal afferents can evoke reflex bladder contractions with relaxation of the external urethral sphincter in cats. This voiding reflex is mediated by pudendal sensory fibers innervating the penile and prostatic urethra that engage spinal and spinobulbospinal micturition pathways, respectively. However, clinical translation of this potential therapy in individuals with spinal cord injury is limited by the lack of evidence showing analogous reflex mechanisms in humans.

Data also point to a facilitatory role played by the activation of BST alpha 2-adrenoceptor on the pressor response to PND-1186 dynamic exercise. (C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Blunt cerebrovascular injuries, defined as blunt injuries to the internal carotid or vertebral arteries, are uncommon and usually occur in victims of high-speed deceleration motor vehicle crashes. A blunt cerebrovascular injury after an equestrian accident is an extremely unusual presentation. In recent years, advances in screening

and treatment with pharmacologic anticoagulation before the onset of neurologic symptoms have improved outcomes for these patients. Endovascular stenting and embolization, although unproven, offer a new potential approach for these complex injuries. We present a unique case of four-vessel blunt cerebrovascular injuries after a horse-riding injury that required multidisciplinary KPT-8602 manufacturer management. (J Vasc Surg 2010;52:1052-7.)”
“The caudal pressor area (CPA) is a brainstem area located close to the spinal cord. The activation of the CPA increases sympathetic activity and mean arterial pressure (MAP) by mechanisms dependent

on the commissural nucleus of the solitary tract (commNTS) and rostroventrolateral medulla, however, the signals that activate the CPA to produce these responses are still unknown. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the activity of glutamatergic and GABAergic mechanisms from the CPA and commNTS in rats exposed to hypoxia and the effects of the inhibition of CPA neurons on cardiorespiratory responses to peripheral chemoreceptor activation with i.v. sodium cyanide (NaCN). Male Sprague-Dawley rats (250-280 g, n=5-8/group) were used. In conscious rats, most of the commNTS neurons (66 +/- 11%) and part of the CPA neurons (36 +/- 7%) activated by hypoxia (8% O2) were glutamatergic (contained VGLUT2mRNA). Small part of the neurons activated during hypoxia was GABAergic (contained GAD-67mRNA) in the commNTS (9 +/- 4%) or the CPA (6 +/- 2%). In urethane anesthetized rats, the inhibition of CPA neurons with bilateral injections of muscimol (GABA-A agonist,

2 mM) reduced baseline MAP, splanchnic sympathetic nerve discharge (SND) and phrenic Calpain nerve discharge (PND). Muscimol into the CPA also reduced by around 50% the pressor and sympathoexcitatory responses and the increase in PND to peripheral chemoreceptor activation with NaCN (50 mu g/kg i.v.), without changing sympathetic baroreflex responses. These data suggest that CPA mechanisms facilitate cardiorespiratory responses to peripheral chemoreflex activation. Immunohistochemistry results also suggest that at least part of the CPA mechanisms activated by hypoxia is glutamatergic. (C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“We report a case of traumatic right subclavian artery pseudoaneurysm, which failed initial treatment by endovascular covered stent.

Evidence suggests that cholinergic-independent pathways over a wide range are also targeted, including serine proteases. These proteases comprise nearly one-third of all known proteases and play major roles in synaptic plasticity, learning, memory, neuroprotection, wound healing, cell signaling, inflammation, PS-341 nmr blood coagulation, and protein processing. Inhibition of these proteases by OP was found to exert a wide range of noncholinergic effects depending on the type of OP, the dose, and the duration of exposure. Consequently, in order to understand these differences, in silico biologically based dose-response

and quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) methodologies need to be integrated. Here, QSAR were used to predict OP bimolecular rate constants for trypsin and -chymotrypsin. A heuristic regression of over 500 topological/constitutional, geometric, thermodynamic, electrostatic, and quantum mechanical descriptors, using the software Ampac 8.0 and Codessa 2.51 (SemiChem, Inc., Shawnee, KS), was developed to obtain statistically verified equations for the models. General models, using all data subsets, resulted in R2 values of .94 and KU-60019 in vivo .92 and leave-one-out Q2 values of 0.9 and 0.87 for trypsin and -chymotrypsin. To validate the general model, training sets

were split into independent subsets for test set evaluation. A y-randomization procedure, used to estimate chance correlation, was performed 10,000 times, resulting

in mean R2 values of .24 and .3 for trypsin and -chymotrypsin. The results show that these models are highly predictive and capable of delineating the complex mechanism of action between OP and serine proteases, and ultimately, by applying this approach to other OP enzyme reactions such as AChE, facilitate the development of biologically based dose-response models.”
“BACKGROUND Chronic kidney disease (CKD) associated with type 2 diabetes is the leading cause of kidney failure, with both inflammation and oxidative stress contributing to disease progression. Bardoxolone methyl, an oral antioxidant inflammation modulator, has shown efficacy in patients with CKD and type 2 diabetes in short-term studies, but longer-term Aldol condensation effects and dose response have not been determined.

METHODS

In this phase 2, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, we assigned 227 adults with CKD (defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate [GFR] of 20 to 45 ml per minute per 1.73 m(2) of body-surface area) in a 1: 1: 1: 1 ratio to receive placebo or bardoxolone methyl at a target dose of 25, 75, or 150 mg once daily. The primary outcome was the change from baseline in the estimated GFR with bardoxolone methyl, as compared with placebo, at 24 weeks; a secondary outcome was the change at 52 weeks.

(C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“In M. Singh

and B. L. Anderson (2002), the authors proposed a model based on ratios of Michelson contrasts to explain how human observers quantitatively scale the perceived opacity of transparent surfaces. In subsequent work (B. L. Anderson, M. Singh, & J. Meng, 2006), the authors found that this model failed to generalize to other contexts and replaced it with a new, more general model based on ratios of perceived contrasts. M. K. Albert’s (2008) main experiment aimed to test the model the authors have previously rejected. The authors argue that M. K. Albert’s experimental method was flawed and that his experiments did not test either the authors’ original model or the authors’ subsequent model that replaced it. M. K. Albert failed to provide any account of the data that the authors’ model SB431542 manufacturer predicts, and he did not provide any theory

to explain GSK2126458 price his own data. The authors conclude that the discrepancy between M. K. Albert’s results and all models of transparency results from problems in the methods used in his experiments, not from the shortcomings of extant theory.”
“There is an increasing body of evidence to show that viruses are important drivers of microbial evolution and that they can store a great deal of the Earth’s microbial diversity in their genomes. Examination of microbial diversity in polar regions has revealed a higher than expected diversity of viruses, bacteria and eukaryotic microbes. Further, the few available Florfenicol studies in polar regions reveal that viral control of microbial mortality is important in these habitats. In this opinion article, we argue that strong relationships between viruses and their hosts in a range of polar habitats could be key in explaining why polar regions are in fact hot spots of microbial diversity and

evolution. Further, we argue that periodic glaciations, and particularly the Neoproterozoic low-latitude glaciation, known as ‘snowball Earth’, could have been periods of intense diversification in aquatic refuges.”
“Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is a polypeptide tropic factor that plays an important role in the survival and differentiation of both neuronal and non-neuronal cells. Numerous studies have demonstrated that IGF-1 promotes neuronal cell survival via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Proline-rich Akt substrate of 40 kDa (PRAS40) is a recently discovered downstream target of Akt. However, the relationship between IGF-1 and PRAS40 is not known. In this study, we characterized the phosphorylation of PRAS40 induced by IGF-1 in PC12 cells and explored the signaling pathway responsible for the effect of IGF-1. IGF-1 induced the phosphorylation of Akt at Thr473 and PRAS40 at Thr246 in PC12 cells.

Midterm data were assessed for reliability of catch-up growth, resulting quality of atrioventricular valves, and adequacy of 2-ventricle repairs.

Methods: The 24 consecutive infants (14 female and 10 male) with unbalanced atrioventricular canal defects had significant hypoplasia of 1 atrioventricular valve and/or ventricle (an echocardiography-derived z value of <=-3.0 standard errors of the mean below expected).

Operative approaches STAT inhibitor included the following: (1) Staged repair was performed, with complete valve repair, partial closure of the atrial septal, and ventricular septal defects, and (usually) pulmonary artery banding. After adequate growth, repair was completed. A vestigial mitral valve (4-7 mm) in 3 patients led to partitioning the large tricuspid valve, creating a second mitral valve. (2) Repair with a shift in atrioventricular valve partitioning was performed to increase hypoplastic atrioventricular valve size. (3) Repair with snared atrial septal defects and ventricular septal defect was performed to allow intracardiac shunting.

selleck kinase inhibitor The hypoplastic atrioventricular valves and hypoplastic ventricles were reassessed on local follow-up (5-15 years).

Results: The initial z scores were -2.8 to -7.4 for hypoplastic atrioventricular valves and -1.0 to -7.5 for hypoplastic ventricles. Follow-up z scores were -0.6 to -2.7 for hypoplastic atrioventricular valves and -2.0 to +1.8 for hypoplastic ventricles. Another 11 patients were also judged to be within normal limits. Three Nutlin-3 molecular weight reoperations were for mitral valve regurgitation, and 1 reoperation was for mitral valve replacement. One patient died of central nervous system bleed just before extracorporeal membrane oxygenation weaning, and 2 patients died of late potassium overdose, for an 88% survival. Survivors are well

with 2-ventricle repairs, and 15 of 19 patients are not taking cardiac medications.

Conclusions: Increasing atrioventricular valve flow reliably induced growth. Valve repair and growth achieved a 2-ventricle repair in all patients. (J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2012;143:S29-32)”
“Healthy people sometimes report experiences and beliefs that are strikingly similar to the symptoms of psychosis in their bizarreness and the apparent lack of evidence supporting them. An important question is whether this represents merely a superficial resemblance or whether there is a genuine and deep similarity indicating, as some have suggested, a continuum between odd but healthy beliefs and the symptoms of psychotic illness. We sought to shed light on this question by determining whether the neural marker for prediction error – previously shown to be altered in early psychosis – is comparably altered in healthy individuals reporting schizotypal experiences and beliefs. We showed that non-clinical schizotypal experiences were significantly correlated with aberrant frontal and striatal prediction error signal. This correlation related to the distress associated with the beliefs.

To that end, in the present study rats exposed to nicotine (0.4 mg/kg) during adolescence (postnatal days 35-44) were tested for the acquisition and extinction of a cocaine-induced conditioned taste aversion (10, 18 or 32 mg/kg) in adulthood. Conditioning consisted of four saccharin-drug pairings followed by six extinction trials. Although cocaine-induced aversions at all doses, no effect of nicotine preexposure was seen during acquisition. During extinction, the nicotine-preexposed groups conditined with 10 and 18 mg/kg cocaine displayed a decreased rate of extinction compared to their

respective buy AZD6244 controls. These results suggest that while adolescent nicotine exposure does not appear to direct alter the aversive properties of cocaine it may affect other processes related to the response to drugs give in adulthood. (C) Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Increased dietary fructose in rodents

recapitulates many aspects of the Metabolic Syndrome with hypertension, insulin resistance and dyslipidemia. Here we show that fructose increased jejunal NaCl and water absorption which was significantly decreased in mice whose apical chloride/base exchanger Slc26a6 (PAT1, CFEX) was knocked out. Increased dietary fructose intake enhanced expression of this transporter as well as the fructose-absorbing transporter Slc2a5 (Glut5) in the small intestine of wild type mice. Fructose feeding decreased salt excretion by the kidney and resulted in hypertension, a response almost abolished in the knockout mice. In Selleckchem A-769662 parallel studies, a chloride-free diet blocked fructose-induced hypertension in Sprague Dawley rats. Serum uric acid remained unchanged in animals on increased fructose intake with hypertension. We suggest that fructose-induced hypertension is likely caused by increased salt absorption by the intestine and kidney and the transporters

Slc26a6 and Slc2a5 are essential in this process.”
“The neural mechanisms responsible for the enhanced adolescent vulnerability for initiating drug abuse are unclear. We investigated whether age differences in dopamine neurotransmission could explain cocaine’s enhanced psychomotor effects in the periadolescent rat. Electrical stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle of anesthetized post-natal age 28 days (PN28) and PN65 elicited dopamine Liothyronine Sodium release in caudate nucleus and nucleus accumbens core before and after 15 mg/kg cocaine i.p. Extracellular dopamine concentrations were greater in PN65 than PN28 caudate following 20 and 60 Hz stimulations and in the PN65 nucleus accumbens following 60 Hz stimulations. Cocaine increased dopamine concentrations elicited by 20 Hz stimulations 3-fold in the adult, but almost 9-fold in periadolescent caudate. Dopamine release rate was lower in the periadolescent caudate although total dopamine clearance was similar to that of adults. The periadolescent caudate achieved adult levels of clearence by compensating for a lower V-max with higher uptake affinity.

Conflicting findings may be explained by variability in VX-689 concentration both test selection and follow-up intervals across studies. Furthermore, most investigations lack a control group, making it difficult to disentangle practice effects from a true treatment effect.

OBJECTIVE: To examine postshunt changes in a sample of well-characterized iNPH participants compared with a group of age-and education-matched healthy control subjects.

METHODS: We identified 12 participants with iNPH undergoing shunt placement and 9 control participants. All participants

were evaluated with comprehensive neuropsychological testing and standardized gait assessment at baseline and were followed up for 6 months.

RESULTS: Repeated-measures analysis of variance revealed a significant group- (iNPH and control) by-time (baseline and 6 months) interaction for Trailmaking Test B: (P < .003) and Symbol Digit Modalities (P < .02), with greater improvement in iNPH participants relative to control

AG-120 concentration subjects. In addition, the iNPH group showed greater improvement in gait (P < .001) and caregivers reported improved activities of daily living (P < .01) and reduced caregiver distress (P < .01).

CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates improvements in mental tracking speed and sustained attention 6 months after shunt placement in iNPH. The present investigation is the first study to use a controlled design to show that cognitive improvement in iNPH is independent of practice

effects. Furthermore, these findings indicate functional and quality-of-life improvements for both the shunt responder and their caregiver.”
“Nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDVs) are characterized by large genomes that often encode proteins not commonly found in viruses. Two species in this group are Acanthocystis turfacea chlorella virus 1 (ATCV-1) (family Phycodnaviridae, genus Chlorovirus) and Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus (family Mimiviridae), commonly known as mimivirus. ATCV-1 and other chlorovirus members encode enzymes involved in the synthesis and glycosylation of their structural proteins. In this study, we identified and characterized three enzymes responsible for the synthesis of the sugar L-rhamnose: two UDP-D-glucose Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II 4,6-dehydratases (UGDs) encoded by ATCV-1 and mimivirus and a bifunctional UDP-4-keto-6-deoxy-D-glucose epimerase/reductase (UGER) from mimivirus. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that ATCV-1 probably acquired its UGD gene via a recent horizontal gene transfer (HGT) from a green algal host, while an earlier HGT event involving the complete pathway (UGD and UGER) probably occurred between a protozoan ancestor and mimivirus. While ATCV-1 lacks an epimerase/reductase gene, its Chlorella host may encode this enzyme. Both UGDs and UGER are expressed as late genes, which is consistent with their role in posttranslational modification of capsid proteins.