We conducted an observational longitudinal cohort study on HIV-1-infected patients who initiated a PI- or NNRTI-based regimen who had a follow-up period of 7 years, and who had HIV RNA loads below the limit of detection at time of analysis. Drug changes were only allowed within the same drug class. Exclusion criteria were coinfection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatic or renal disorder, autoimmune disorder, malignancy, drug or alcohol addiction and pregnancy.

The patients were recruited from the Cologne HIV cohort. In 2000 this cohort, approved by the ethical committee of the University of Cologne (Germany), was established to characterize the outcomes of care for Staurosporine concentration HIV-infected patients seen in clinical practice. After informed consent had been obtained, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were cryoconserved and patient data, including comprehensive demographic, clinical, laboratory and pharmaceutical data, were collected and entered into the AZD0530 in vitro study

database. Of 159 patients included in the cohort, 16 patients met the inclusion criteria for our study. Primary outcome measures were within-group changes in the mitochondrial-to-nuclear DNA ratio, a representative marker of intrinsic apoptosis, in PBMCs, and inter-group differences in these changes. Further outcome measures were defined as changes in CD4 T-cell counts and in molecular, biochemical and supplemental functional markers of PBMC intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis and viral infection. All patients received dual backbone NRTI therapy in addition to a PI (atazanavir, fosamprenavir, lopinavir, nelfinavir or ritonavir) or NNRTI (efavirenz or nevirapine). Patients were followed in the out-patient clinic every 3–6 months, with clinical assessment and laboratory testing being performed at each visit. For a precise analysis of the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic network (Fig. 1), key variables were measured using different methods (described below). HAS1 Intrinsic apoptosis: caspase 9, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) (anti-apoptotic),

Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and mitochondrial toxicity (mitochondrial-to-nuclear DNA ratio and lactate-to-pyruvate ratio). Extrinsic apoptosis: tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), Fas ligand (FasL) and caspase 8. Overall apoptosis: Annexin V+/7-aminoactinomycin D (7-AAD)– and caspase 3/7 (executer caspase). Further parameters of viral infection and inflammation known to induce apoptosis were selected for analysis. A viral protein: the HIV accessory protein negative regulatory factor (Nef). A proinflammatory cytokine and a downstream gene product: interferon-α (IFN-α) and myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA). All standard laboratory measurements were performed at a central laboratory.