The second category of down-regulated transcript levels at 48°C included genes coding for 13 amino acyl-tRNA synthetases, among which eight were also decreased at 43°C (Additional files 4 and 2). Conversely, expression of cysteinyl-tRNA synthetase

was significantly increased at 48°C. In contrast, expression of most other genes coding for major biosynthetic apparatus of replication, transcription, and translation, e.g. ribosomal proteins, DNA or RNA synthesis, was not or only marginally affected by heat shock (see Additional file 2), except for rnc coding for RNase III whose expression was up-regulated at both 43°C and 48°C. A similar situation prevailed among cell wall and membrane biogenesis components, with only 10% of altered transcripts, in contrast to autolytic components whose expression was more affected by heat shock. Among cell division-regulating components, only scdA transcript VX-680 molecular weight levels, coding for a cell division and morphogenesis-related protein, were specifically reduced at both 43°C and 48°C. Another category of ATP-consuming activities, whose expression appeared down-regulated, included 13 out of 15 evaluated ATP-dependent components of

amino acid or peptide transporters (Additional files 4 and 2). Microarray data confirmed that amino acid/oligopeptide, transport was essential to cell metabolism because most amino acid synthetic pathways were repressed at 37°C. However, some of those amino acid pathways were strongly induced by up-shift to 48°C, as Selleck Dolutegravir revealed https://www.selleckchem.com/products/gsk2126458.html by increased transcript levels (2.5–18 fold) of biosynthetic enzymes for lysine, tryptophan, glutamate, histidine, and branched chain amino acids. Up-regulation of those amino acid synthetic pathways, despite being high consumers of ATP, might indicate an increasing need of some amino acids during heat stress, possibly amplified by a decreased efficiency of some amino acid, ATP-driven transport systems. Of note, the

content of free amino acids in MHB remained abundant throughout bacterial growth as well as after heat shock exposure (data not shown), which ruled out a specific depletion of some amino acids as observed in a previous study [49]. Therefore, the marginal decline in extracellular amino acid supply was not sufficient for explaining the selective, biosynthetic induction of some amino acids during heat stress at 48°C. Since transcriptomic data suggest a decreased efficiency of energy-dependent transport systems in heat stressed-bacteria, this observation can be supported by the documented effects of increased temperature on bacterial membrane fluidity, which are known to alter SRT1720 proton impermeability and the proton-motive force [47, 52]. These heat-induced alterations in the membrane physico-chemical properties may require changes in its lipid composition for fluidity adjustment [47, 52].