This study showed that muscular forces increase with age. This development of muscular forces may be linked to our observed time course of the development nano-structural

parameters of mineral particle orientation (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4) and degree of mineralisation (Fig. 5). The association between muscle strength and bone mass has been established in numerous studies [37], [38] and [39], and mechanical stimulation by skeletal muscles has been reported to have a dominant effect on bone gain and loss when compared to non-mechanical factors such as hormones and metabolic environments [40] and [41]. This is further illustrated by the increased fracture risk and deformability observed in patients with muscle wasting and neuromuscular diseases such as muscular dystrophy,

which implies an underlying altered bone material structure [42]. Furthermore, PI3K inhibitor review it has been shown that increasing muscle strength through exercise can reduce the risk of fracture and the development of kyphosis in older women with osteoporosis [43]. It has been demonstrated find more that increased fracture risk in the case of ageing bone is associated with changes in bone material [44] as well as reduced bone mass. To better understand the mechanisms in the bone material that mediate the alterations in gross fracture risk and deformability in metabolic bone disease, we have investigated mice with X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets, a disease that is associated with progressive weakness and wasting of skeletal muscle [45] Tenoxicam as well as a reduction in lowered bone mineral content. In this rachitic condition, deterioration in the skeletal muscle increases the deformability and fracture of bone. Our results

show that alterations in the nanostructure of the bone matrix – such as the direction and degree of mineral particle orientation – are associated with both predicted reduction in muscle forces and altered mineralisation in the disease condition. Hence, we propose that the nanostructural parameters of mineral particle orientation and direction may play a vital role in controlling the fracture risk and the deformability in the bone tissue. Furthermore, the nanostructural parameters like the degree of orientation and mineral particle angle could potentially be used as markers to estimate the fracture risk and the deformability in bone in metabolic and neuromuscular bone diseases. This work was supported by Diamond Light Source Ltd. UK and Queen Mary University of London (grant nos. MATL1D8R and CDTA SEM7100b) and the Medical Research Council UK (grant no. G0600702). G.R.D. would like to thank the Engineering and Physical Research Council (EPSRC) UK, for supporting the development of the beam hardening methods used in the micro-CT analysis through grant no. EP/G007845/1. ”
“Fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF23) was discovered as a phosphaturic hormone through genetic studies in patients suffering from autosomal dominant hypophosphatemic rickets, a renal phosphate wasting disease [1].