12 Although this type of inertial injury usually is described as diffuse axonal injury, the term is somewhat misleading in that the actual pattern of injury is more accurately characterized as BIX 01294 nmr multifocal.23 Cellular response to injury The above-described forces, whether in and around

focal injuries such as contusions, or remote from the focal injury and attributable to inertial forces, a complex set of events is set in motion at the cellular and subcellular level that is only Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical partially understood (Figure 1).24 Two initiating events related to Ca++ homeostasis appear to be of particular importance. First, at the time of injury mechanical perturbation of neurons is associated with a significant release of a host of neurotransmitters. Of particular importance is the release of glutamate and other excitatory amino acids with a resultant influx of extracellular Ca++ into the cell. This in turn releases additional Ca++ from intracellular stores, thus producing sufficient quantities Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of free intracellular Ca++ to initiate a host of intracellular reactions that can result in cytotoxic injury and eventually cell death. Second, mechanical perturbation of the neuron and its axon can result in mechanoporation of the cell membrane and axolcmma with subsequent influx

of extracellular Ca++ and other ions into the cell and axon. The mechanical distortion of the membrane does not resolve immediately and the ultimate fate of the membrane

and the neuron appears related to the degree of distortion and other factors, with Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical some cells repairing and resealing, and others progressing on to further disruption and cell death. Figure 1. Simplified summary of traumatic brain injury (TBI)-associated cellular injury cascades. Of note is that events Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical are triggered at the time of injury but the full evolution of the process plays out over hours to weeks after injury. For the details see ref … A variety of intracellular events attributable to this altered Ca++ homeostasis are set in motion (see refs 24-26). Most emphasis has been on the activation of two groups of cysteine proteases, the caspases and the calpains, and their role in the initiation of necrosis and apoptosis. Both pathways can result in cell death, and there are important linkages between the two mechanisms. However the necrosis pathway occurs rapidly, is a “passive” nearly event related to energy failure and subsequent inability to maintain cellular homeostasis, is more closely associated with the calpain proteases, and triggers an inflammatory response, whereas the apoptotic pathway evolves over hours to weeks after injury, is an active process requiring energy, is more closely associated with the caspase proteases, and is less clearly linked to inflammatory responses.