4A and B). The analysis of MCP-1 gene synthesis in tracheal tissue showed lower levels of MCP-1 mRNA in tissue collected from HQ-exposed animals than in tracheal tissue collected from vehicle-exposed mice ( Fig. 4C and D).

A direct action of HQ on chemoattractant www.selleckchem.com/erk.html secretion was observed as reduced levels of MCP-1 were found in the supernatant of in vitro HQ-treated naive AMs ( Fig. 5A) and tracheal tissue ( Fig. 5B). It is noteworthy that the effect does not reflect cell toxicity, as HQ incubation did not induce AMs death, assessed by trypan blue exclusion assay (data not shown). In order to determine the associations between the actions of in vivo HQ exposure on MCP-1 secretion and mononuclear cell migration, THP-1 monocytic cells were used in a Boyden chamber. Using the concentrations of MCP-1 detected in tracheal tissue from animals exposed to vehicle (0.9 ng/ml) or to HQ (0.1 ng/ml) as chemotactic agents, it was observed that MCP-1 induces a dose-related direct migration of mononuclear cells ( Fig. 6). The increase in levels of environmental pollution has been attributed not only to advances in technology but also to anthropogenic activities. Epidemiological studies have associated the increase in air pollutants with respiratory, cardiac and metabolic diseases (Brook and Rajagopalan, 2010, Burgan et al., 2010, Chiba and Abe, 2003, Pearce and Braverman, 2009 and Yang

and Omaye, 2009). In this context, in vivo experimental studies have helped to increase knowledge about the mechanisms of air pollutant toxicity. The actions of HQ on mechanisms related to mononuclear cell migration HKI-272 research buy to the LPS-inflamed lung are described herein and seem to be dependent on MCP-1 secretion by resident lung cells. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first evidence of in vivo HQ toxicity tuclazepam on MCP-1 production. According to McGregor (2007), there is limited evidence showing the toxic actions of HQ after in vivo exposure, which may have contributed to the inadequate classification of HQ as being non-carcinogenic to humans (group 3) by the International

Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Our research group used in vivo HQ exposure methods that do not impair haematopoiesis and do not induce DNA adduction in lung tissue, both known as HQ-toxicity biological end points. However, in vivo HQ-exposure mainly causes harmful actions during host defence ( Ferreira et al., 2006, Macedo et al., 2007 and Ribeiro et al., 2011). The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) states that 2 mg/m3 (0.44 ppm) is the threshold limit value–threshold weighted average (TLV–TWA) for human HQ exposure (NIOSH, 1994). Based on this information and considering HQ toxicity in mice (Snyder, 2002, Snyder, 2004 and Snyder, 2007), the concentrations of HQ used in the current study were 10 times lower (25 ppm = 0.